Introduction to social psychology
:Social psychology is studied in different ways by both psychologists and sociologists. ::For the subfield of Sociology, see 'Social psychology (sociology).'' '''Social psychology is often conceived to be the study of how individuals perceive, influence, and relate to others. More fundamentally it can be conceived to be the study of how our thought and self-awareness is social in origin (i.e., made possible by language and social interaction). According to Gordon Allport's classic definition, social psychology is an attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling, and behavior of individuals is influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. By imagined or implied presence, Allport is suggesting that the effects of social influence are felt even when there are no other people about. Social Psychology is usually considered a subfield of either psychology or sociology, though there are differences depending on which discipline we are referring to. Some of these differences are organizational in nature. Psychological Social Psychology and Sociological Social Psychology are individual scientific focuses which produce different and unique journals. Other differences include the type of processes emphasized by the respective disciplines. {see also: Societal psychology Psychological social psychologists tend take an interactional approach to human social behavior which emphasizes factors both within the person (cognition, affect, motives, neurophysiology, and personality traits) and the immediate social situation. Sociological social psychologists tend to emphasize processes outside of the person at a more distant macro-level, such as social structure and a more immediate micro-level, such as social interaction. Both include the use of the individual and the group as units of analysis in their research. There are also perspectives overcoming the distinction between the individual and the social (or the opposition inside and outside the person) by taking a different unit of analysis. Discursive Psychology and Social Constructionism, for example, take language as their primary concern. History The discipline of social psychology began at the dawn of the twentieth century. Landmark moments include the publication of Charles Horton Cooley's "Human Nature and Social Order" in 1902, which sought to explain the social order by use of the concept of a looking-glass self. The first textbooks in social psychology would be published six years later by E. A. Ross and William McDougall. Relevant academic fields Subfields of social psychology right|Social Psychology subfields Social psychological work can not be approached with the interests and the emphases of both psychology and sociology in mind. As a result, the discipline can be split into at least two general subfields, which concentrate on the relative importance of some subjects over others. (House, 1977) * As sociological social psychology, which looks at the social behavior of humans in terms of associations and relationships that they have. This type leans toward sociology. One offshoot of this perspective is the Personality and Social Structure Perspective, which emphasizes the links between individual personality and identity, and how it relates to social structures. Sociological social psychologists tend to publish in Social Psychology Quarterly. Sociological social psychologists usually are members of social psychology section of the American Sociological Association (ASA). * As psychological social psychology, which looks at social behavior of humans in terms of the mental states of the individuals and their immediate social situations. Psychological social psychologists tend to publish in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, and Experimental Social Psychology. Psychological social psychologists usually are members of the Society of Personality and Social Psychology. Relation to other fields Social psychology has close ties with the other social sciences, especially sociology and psychology. It also has very strong ties to the field of social philosophy. * Sociology is the study of group behavior and human societies, with emphasis on the structures of societies and the processes of social influence. Includes all organizational behavior. * Psychology is the study of the underlying psychological processes that make all behaviors and experiences possible. Some examples of the things it seeks to explain are: the attribution of mental states to others, the notion of a unitary 'self', sight and perception, personality and identity, warfare and violence, love, being hungry, waking up, etc. * Philosophy of the social sciences is the study of theoretical questions about the experience and behavior of persons and the justifications involved with how they are studied in the social sciences. It involves questions related to the philosophy of mind, the philosophy of language, social epistemology, and many other fields. The concerns of social psychology General research interests 150px|right|Social Psychology Diagram Social psychology attempts to understand the relationship between minds, groups, and behaviors in three general ways. First, it tries to see how the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other(s) (Allport 3). This includes social perception, social interaction, and the many kinds of social influence (like trust, power, and persuasion). Gaining insight into the social psychology of persons involves looking at the influences that individuals have on the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of other individuals, as well as the influence that groups have on individuals. This aspect of social psychology asks questions like: * How do small group dynamics impact cognition and emotional states? * How do social groups control or contribute to behavior, emotion, or attitudes of the individual members? * How does the group impact the individual? * How does the individual operate within the social group? Second, it tries to understand the influence that individual perceptions and behaviors have upon the behavior of groups. This includes looking at things like group productivity in the workplace and group decision making. It looks at questions like: * How does persuasion work to change group behavior, emotion or attitudes? * What are the reasons behind conformity, diversity, and deviance? Third, and finally, social psychology tries to understand groups themselves as behavioral entities, and the relationships and influences that one group has upon another group (Michener 5). It asks questions like: * What makes some groups hostile to one another, and others neutral or civil? * Do groups behave in a different way than an individual outside the group? In European textbooks there is also fourth level called the "ideological" level. It studies the societal forces that influence the human psyche. Specific research interests 300px|right|thumb|The scope of social psychological research. Based on input from Cote and Levine, 2002. Some of the basic topics of interest in social psychology are: * Impression Formation - which investigates the cognitive processes underlying the way we form impressions of others. This includes the biases guiding our impressions, the inferences we make, and the weight we give to different pieces of information. * Social Judgment - which investigates the cognitive processes underlying our beliefs about the social world. Some of the heuristics or “rules of thumb” include the availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic, and anchoring and adjustment. We are sometimes also biased toward over-attributing our own personal beliefs to society at large, i.e. the false consensus effect. Some people also tend to believe in a just world which can lead to blaming the victim in some circumstances. * Self and Identity – Social Psychologists in this area study self-schemas and their influence on social cognitive processes, self-esteem, self-enhancement and social identity. *'Attitudes' – The focus of this area is the study of the relationship between attitudes and behavior and the use of persuasive communication to change attitudes. The primary theories used to explain and predict the relationship between attitudes and behavior are the theories of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) and planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985). The primary theory of attitude change is the Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Caccioppo, 1986). *'Social influence' - This area of research studies the methods people use to make us comply, conform, or obey their authority. Social Impact Theory is the most heavily used theory in this area (Latane, 1981). *'Group Processes' - includes the study of group formation, effectiveness and influences on the individual. * Interpersonal attraction - Social Psychologists in this area study the factors the influence attraction and liking. *'Close Relationships' - Social Psychologists in this area study the processes underlying relationship formation, maintenance and dissolution. Prominent theories in this area are Interdependence Theory (Rusbult, Agnew & Arriaga, 2001) and Attachment Theory (Reis & Patrick, 1996). *'Aggression' - Social Psychologists in this area study the factors that influence anti-social behavior. *'Pro-social behavior' - Social Psychologists in this area study the factors that influence helping behavior. *'Intergroup Relations' - which studies prejudice and discrimination. * Socialization (which investigates the learning of standards, rules, attitudes, roles, values, and beliefs; and the agents, processes, and outcomes of learning) and Development (which looks at the contribution of both nature and nurture in production of social behavior). ** Gender roles - the effects of role schemas on the perceived makeup of gender and the sexes ** Personal development and life course - the general facets of life in various societies, including personal careers, identities, biological development, and shifts in roles **'Moral development' - the development (in stages) of the rational and social-psychological abilities required to make moral judgments. See Lawrence Kohlberg * Communication (which delves into the learning and processing of verbal and non-verbal language, and the effects of social structures and societies on the use of both). ** Impression management and Dramaturgy - investigates the use of self-presentation, along with tactical impression management, deception, and failed identities. See Erving Goffman ** Sociolinguistics and sociology of language - looks at how societies affect language use, and vice-versa (respectively) ** Semantics - analyses the topic of meaning in general, especially with respect to formal usage, and Pragmatics which analyzes the rules of usage in conversation Research methods and theoretical issues Basic considerations Social psychologists use a wide range of research methods; depending on the research questions. There are several important issues to consider when setting up research, among which the essential questions: # Is the research question exploratory (gathering information in order to build a theory) or confirmatory (gathering information in order to confirm a theory)? # How important is experimental control (internal validity) compared to being able to generalise results to a naturalistic situation for the population at large (external validity)? Based on considerations above, the type of research (qualitative, or quantitative) and the exact methods, theories and statistical analyses are chosen. Methods Social psychologists make use of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Quantitative methods include surveys, controlled experiments, and mathematical modeling, with some emphasis upon correlational research. As it is impossible to test every person in a population research is conducted on a sample of persons from a wider population. Social psychologists typically use random assignment of participants and a control group that resembles the experimental groups in all respects other than the independent variable. When experiments take this form, it tends to mitigate the effects of potential confounds. Social psychologists rely often on experimentation. Controlled experimentation requires the manipulation of one or more independent variables in order to examine its effect on a dependent variable. Also required is the experimental control of potential confounding influences, known as extraneous variables. Controlled experiments are attractive for use in social psychology because they are high in internal validity, meaning that they are free from the influence of extraneous variables, and so are more likely to accurately indicate a causal relationship. However, the small samples used in controlled experiments are low in external validity, or the degree to which the results can be generalized the larger population. Social psychologists frequently utilize survey research when they are interested in results that are high in external validity. Surveys use different forms of random sampling (simple, stratified, clustered) to obtain a sample of respondents that are representative of a population. This method of subject selection increases the chances that the results from a survey study are generalizable to the population in question. On the other hand, surveys tend to be low in internal validity because they rely on correlational analysis, or the strength and direction of the relationship between variables. Because surveys do not systematically manipulate variables or control for confounds, the nature or direction of a potential causal relationship is unknown. However, new statistical methods like structural equation modeling are being used to test for potential causal relationships in correlational data. Also available to the social psychologist is the close examination of existing scientific literature, which is called a meta-analysis. Qualitative methods include naturalistic observation and field research, participant observation, content analysis, discourse analysis, ethnomethodology, and etogenia. Observational methods like participant observation are sometimes employed by social psychologists. These methods have very little internal but a decent level of external validity, as the behavior studied is not confounded by a prior assumptions of the researcher. They are used mainly to generate theory and hypotheses for later testing through experimental or survey research. Many researchers emphasize the importance of a multimethodological approach to social research, drawing from both qualitative and quantitative approaches. (Roth, 1987) For example, using qualitative methods to provide the hypothesis, quantitative methods to test the hypothesis, and subsequent qualitative methods to understand deviations from the hypothesis. Underlying issues In social psychology, as in any other discipline, there will be a number of underlying philosophical predispositions in the projects of scientists. Some of these predispositions involve the nature of social knowledge itself, the nature of social reality, and the locus of human control in action (Cote and Levine, 2002; Slife and Gantt, 1999). One main and lasting crisis has been the debate over positivism and phenomenology. In the former, the research focus has been an attempt to find overarching, universal laws to social behavior and history. In the latter, by contrast, the emphasis is upon a focus of empirical study, and making accurate descriptions of social reality, regardless of whether or not they fit a grand theory or explanation. These two forms have tended to lend themselves to favor either quantitative or qualitative methods, respectively. In addition to these two orientations, there is a third outlook: a kind of social rationalism, which makes use of axiomatic presuppositions in order to explain social reality. One underlying problem for the social psychologists is whether or not their studies can or should ultimately be understood in terms of the meaning and consciousness behind social action, as with folk psychology, or whether or not more objective materialist and behavioral facts are to be given exclusive study. This problem is especially important for those within social psychology who study meaning and language, and for those in the sociological social psychology tradition who favor symbolic interactionism, because a rejection of the study of meanings would lead to the reclassification of such research as unempirical. Three persistent themes in the philosophy of the social sciences, and which directly affect social psychology, have been the structure-agency debate, and the related arguments over determinism and free will. Research ethics Social psychologists are concerned with ethical issues, and there are certain ethical controversies that are especially apparent in this area. The goal of social psychology is to understand naturally occurring cognition and behavior in a social context, but the very act of observing people in social contexts tends to influence and alter their behavior. For this reason, many social psychology experiments utilize deception to conceal or distort certain aspects of the study. Deception may include false cover stories, false participants (known as confederates or stooges), false feedback given to the participants, and so on. This practice has been challenged by some psychologists who maintain that deception under any circumstances is not ethically correct, and that other research strategies (e.g. role-playing) should be used instead. Unfortunately, research has shown that role-playing studies do not produce the same results as deception studies and this has cast doubt on their validity. In addition to deception, experimenters have at times put people into potentially uncomfortable or embarrassing situations (e.g. the Milgram experiment), and this has also been criticized for ethical reasons. To protect the rights and wellbeing of research participants, and at the same time discover meaningful results and insights into human behavior, virtually all social psychology research must pass an ethical review process. At most colleges and universities, this is conducted by an ethics committee or institutional review board. This group examines the proposed research to make sure that no harm is done to the participants, and that the benefits of the study outweigh any possible risks or discomforts to people taking part in the study. Furthermore, a process of informed consent is often used to make sure that volunteers know what will happen in the experiment and understand that they are allowed to quit the experiment at any time. A debriefing is typically done at the conclusion of the experiment in order to reveal any deceptions used and generally make sure that the participants are unharmed by the procedures. Today, most research in social psychology involves no more risk of harm than can be expected as by routine psychological testing or normal daily activities. Important terms and concepts Heuristics Heuristics - Broadly, a Heuristic is a method for problem-solving. The word comes from the same Greek root as "eureka". In psychology heuristics seen to be are simple, efficient rules of thumb which have been proposed to explain how people make decisions, come to judgments and solve problems, typically when facing complex problems or incomplete information. These rules work well under most circumstances, but in certain cases lead to systematic cognitive biases. *availability heuristic is a heuristic which occurs when people estimate the probability of an outcome based on how easy that outcome is to imagine. As such, vividly described, emotionally-charged possibilities will be perceived as being more likely than those that are harder to picture or are difficult to understand, resulting in a corresponding cognitive bias. *representative heuristic is a heuristic wherein we assume commonality between objects of similar appearance. While often very useful in everyday life, it can also result in stereotyping and false generalizations when used improperly. Persuasion Persuasion is a form of influence. It is the process of guiding people toward the adoption of an idea, attitude, or action by rational and symbolic (though not only logical) means. It is a problem-solving strategy, and relies on "appeals" rather than force. There are four basic aspects: #The Communicator, a person whose credibility, expertise, trustworthiness and attractiveness all play a role. #The message, possessed of varying degrees of reason or emotion, is either one-sided or two sided, and is emphasized by primacy or recency. #The Channel, whether it be interpersonal or media based, passive or active in nature. #The audience, possessed of a wide variety of demographics and preferences. *Influence - Social psychology considers a great number of ways in which an individual can be influenced. Two of the reasons why people consciously allow themselves to be influenced are: **Normative influence - the desire to conform and obtain group acceptance, avoiding the fear or rejection and conflict, and **Informational influence - the desire to obtain useful information through conformity, and thereby achieve a correct result. *Credibility is the believability of a statement, action, or source, and the ability of the observer to believe that statement. In public speaking, Aristotle considered the credibility of the speaker, his character, to be one of the forms of proof. Contemporary social science research has found that there are several dimensions of credibility. Berlo and Lemert (1961) noted three: competence, trustworthiness and dynamism. *Elaboration Likelihood Model distinguishes between two routes to persuasion: the Central Route and the Peripheral Route of processing. This is a dual-process theory of information processing. Central route processes involve careful, logical scrutiny of a persuasive communication (e.g., a speech, an advertisement, etc.) to determine the merits of the arguments. Under these conditions, a person’s unique cognitive responses to the message determine the persuasive outcome (i.e., the direction and magnitude of attitude change). Peripheral route processes, on the other hand, require little thought, and therefore predominate under conditions that promote low elaboration. These processes often rely on judgmental heuristics (e.g., “experts are always right”) or surface features of a message (e.g., the number of arguments presented) or its source (e.g., their attractiveness). Which route is taken is determined by the extent of elaboration. Both motivational and ability factors determine elaboration. Motivational factors include (among others) the personal relevance of the message topic, accountability, and a person’s need for Cognition (their innate desire to enjoy thinking). Ability factors include the availability of cognitive resources (e.g., the presence or absence of time pressures or distractions) or relevant knowledge needed to carefully scrutinize the arguments. Under conditions of moderate elaboration, a mixture of central and peripheral route processes will guide information processing. *Foot-in-the-door technique is a persuasion method. In it, the persuader does something small in order to catch the target's interest, before moving on to what he really wants. A related trick is the Bait and switch. An example is the practice of charities mass-mailing small free gifts (such as pens) to recipients in the hope of persuading them to open the letter and consider donating money, rather than simply throwing the letter in the wastebasket. Group dynamics Group dynamics is the study of how individual behaviors differs depending on individuals' current or prospective connections to a sociological group. Social facilitation was traditionally seen to be the tendency for people to be aroused into better performance of simple tasks when under the eye of others rather than while they are alone. Complex tasks are often performed in an inferior manner in such situations however. Social facilitation has been redefined as the increased likelihood of the individual performing already likely tasks when in the company of others. This affect has been shown to be strongest among those who are most concerned about the opinions of others, and when the individual is being watched by someone they do not know, and/or cannot see well. Social loafing is the tendency of individuals to slack when work is pooled and individual performance is not being evaluated. A good example of social facilitation is a foot race (where the individual runs faster when not alone) as opposed to a group tug-of-war (where the work is pooled, and an individual's lack of performance is hard to notice). Deindividuation is the phenomenon of relinquishing one's sense of self-awareness or identity. This can happen as a result of becoming part of a group, such as an army or mob, but also as a result of meditation. It can have quite destructive effects, sometimes making people more likely to commit a crime, like stealing (Diener, 1976) or even over-enforce the law, such as police in riot situations. Risky shift - in group conditions, people with relatively moderate viewpoints tend to assume that their groupmates hold more extreme views, and to alter their own views in compensation--a phenomenon known as groupthink. This can occur simultaneously and in isolation: all group members might adjust their views to a more conservative or liberal position, thus leading to a "consensus" that is totally false. The risky shift occurs when the group collectively agrees on a course of action that is likewise more extreme than they would have made if asked individually. Risky shift is one side of a more general phenomenon called group polarization. Groupthink - In a groupthink situation, each member of the group attempts to conform his or her opinions to what they believe to be the consensus of the group. In a general sense this seems to be a rational way to approach the situation. However this results in a situation in which the group ultimately agrees upon an action which each member might individually consider to be unwise (the risky shift). Minority influence and leadership - Minority influence is the degree to which minorities influence the group. Their ability to influence is based upon several factors, including the consistent maintenance of their position, the degree of their defection from the majority, and their self-confidence. Leadership is the ability to guide, mobilize, and maintain the group. Some view leadership as a form of minority influence, in this case a minority of one. Leadership can be divided into two types: task leadership, and social leadership. Task leadership focuses on organization, standards and goals. Social leadership offers support and help to others, fosters teamwork and mediates conflict. Most organizations include aspects of both leadership styles within the hierarchy of their management. Cognitive bias Cognitive bias includes any of a wide range of observer effects identified in cognitive science and social psychology including very basic Statistics, social attribution, and memory errors that are common to all human beings. Biases drastically skew the reliability of anecdotal and legal evidence. Social biases, usually called attributional biases affect our everyday social interactions. And biases related to probability and decision making significantly affect the scientific method which is deliberately designed to minimize such bias from any one observer. See Cognitive psychology and list of cognitive biases for more information. *Confirmation bias - One of the most important discoveries in Social psychology is Confirmation bias a type of statistical bias describing the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions. Researchers have been shown to actively seek out and assign more weight to evidence that confirms their hypothesis, and ignore or under weigh evidence that could disconfirm their hypothesis. As such, it can be thought of as a form of selection bias in collecting evidence. *Hindsight bias - a false memory of having predicted events, or exaggeration of actual predictions, after becoming aware of the outcome. Phrases like "I knew it!" or "I told you so!" sometimes, but not always, incorporate hindsight bias. *Self-serving bias and Egocentric bias - Self-serving bias is our tendency to take credit for our successes and blame others for our failures. Egocentric bias is related, and describes our tendency to over-emphasize our personal contribution to group projects (both successes and failures). *Fundamental attribution error - The tendency to view one's own actions as based on external circumstances, but the actions of others as based upon their inherent personality and disposition. These attributions are guided by consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness. The Fundamental attribution error is generally seen to be the result of perspective. The subtle root causes behind the behavior of others are often disregarded in favor of information deemed to be of greater salience. *Overconfidence - Humans have been proven to be surprisingly overconfident. Incompetence has been shown to aggravate such overconfidence, while actual efficacy tends to reduce it; see Overconfidence effect. *Illusory correlations are beliefs that inaccurately suppose a relationship between a certain type of action and an effect. They can be caused by, among other things, an event that stands out as unique. For example, "The only time I forget my pencil is when we have a test" is most likely an illusory correlation (unless the speaker is very, very, unlucky). It is likely caused by only a few other pencil-less tests, which stand out particularly well in the memory. *Illusion of control is the tendency for human beings to believe they can control or at least influence outcomes of which researchers deem them to have no influence over. Prayer, superstitions, and postulated paranormal powers underline the limitations of science to falsify many of these "illusory" controls. Other cognitions and internal influences *Self-efficacy - Self-efficacy is the belief that one has the capabilities to execute the courses of actions required to manage prospective situations. Unlike efficacy, which is the power to produce an effect (in essence, competence); self-efficacy is the belief (however accurate) that one has the power to produce that effect. *Self esteem - self-esteem or self-worth includes a person's subjective appraisal of himself or herself as intrinsically positive or negative to some degree (Sedikides & Gregg, 2003). Contrary to popular opinion high self esteem is not always viewed as beneficial. High self esteem can result in unrealistic expectations, and can result in arrogance, rudeness, bullying or aggression, particularly when an individual with high self esteem is threatened or feels out of control. *Locus of control - The Locus of control (originally developed by Julian Rotter in the 1950s) measures the extent to which an individual views events and outcomes as being controlled by internal personal efforts, or by external forces, such as fate or chance. Compare free will and determinism. *Self-handicapping - is defined as "any action or choice of performance setting that enhances the opportunities to externalize failure and to internalize success." It involves the placement of obstacles in ones own path so as to excuse ones subsequent failure. An example would be playing video games instead of studying before the big test. *Cognitive dissonance - Cognitive dissonance holds that contradicting cognitions serve as a force which compels the human mind to acquire or invent new thoughts or beliefs, or to modify existing beliefs, so as to minimize the amount of dissonance (conflict) between cognitions. In economics this term is also called buyer's remorse. This post-purchase behavior is more likely to happen when the purchase is a more expensive one. The consumer may experience some regrets or questioning as to whether the purchase was a good one. *Controlled and automatic processing - Controlled processing is our conscious mind, and includes thoughts we are aware of, and plan out in a linear manner. Automatic processing is our intuitive or instinctual subconscious thoughts and feelings, which we often do not expect and cannot predict. *self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that, in being made, actually causes itself to become true. For example, in the stock market, if it is widely believed that a crash is imminent, investors may lose confidence, sell most of their stock, and actually cause the crash. *Attitude is a cognition which has an affect on behavior. Despite such a seemingly clear correlation, Social psychologists have found that privately held (inner) attitudes have surprisingly little predictive value regarding actual behavior. Instead they have found a great deal of "moral hypocrisy" (Batson 1997, 2001, 2002). The situations when attitude has the most predictive value are when social or other influences on our behavior or moral claims are minimal, and when our attitudes are particularly strong or specific to the behavior in question. *Conformity is the degree to which members of a group will change their behavior, views and attitudes to fit the views of the group. The group can influence members via unconscious processes or via overt peer pressures on individuals. Group size, unanimity, cohesion, status, prior commitment and public opinion all help to determine the level of conformity an individual will reflect towards his group. *Reactance (psychology) is an action in direct contradiction to rules and regulation; it can occur when someone is heavily pressured to accept a certain view or attitude. Reactance can cause the person to adopt or strengthen a view or attitude that is contrary to what was intended and also increases resistance to persuasion. A mild example could be a boy being all the more interested in a girl playing "hard to get", or teenagers drinking to excess in an environment of prohibition when they would not do so in a more liberal culture. The essence of reactance is rebellion. Major theories in Social Psychology Attribution theory Attribution theory - Attribution theory is concerned with the ways in which people explain (or attribute) the behavior of others. The theory divides the way people attribute causes to events into two types. *"External" or "situational" attribution assigns causality to an outside factor, such as the weather, *"internal" or "dispositional" attribution assigns causality to factors within the person, such as their own level of intelligence or other variables that make the individual responsible for the event. According to Harold Kelley, the three basic methods of determining if the actions of others are due to internal or external factors are: Distinctiveness (does the person behave in a manner unique to the situation, or do they often act this way?), consensus (would others behave this way in such a situation?), and consistency (does the person generally behave this way given this situation?). Behaviorism Reinforcement theory understands social behavior to be caused by classical and operant conditioning (reinforcement). In radical form, it presumes that all social cognition starts out blank and is created by conditioning. Evolutionary theory Evolutionary theory attempts to explain the actions of persons in the context of gene transmission across generations. Evolutionary psychology may take the cognitive perspective and form hypotheses about function and design by acknowledging the evolutionary causal process that built these cognitive mechanisms. Social psychologists who use an evolutionary perspective, such as Douglas Kenrick and Jeffry Simpson, address many of the same topics as scientists who identify as evolutionary psychologists, but tend to give more attention to more traditional social psychology topics, such as social influence, person perception, and intergroup relations. Symbolic interactionism Symbolic interactionism - a sociological theory, originating in the ideas of George Herbert Mead, that contains two major versions: Structural SI and Process SI. Structural SI utilizes shared social knowledge from a macro-level to explain social interactions and psychological factors at the micro-level. Structural SI focuses on the relatively static patterns in micro-level interactions that are caused by these macro-level structures. Structural SI researchers tend to use quantitative methods. Identity Theory (Styker & Burke, 2000) and Affect-Control Theory (Heise, 1979) grew out of this tradition. Process SI stems from the Second Chicago School and views social interactions to be constant flux and study it without reference to a larger social structure. Process SI researchers tend to use qualitative and ethnographic methods. Cognitive psychology Cognitive psychology is the psychological science that studies cognition, the mental processes that underlie behavior, including thinking, reasoning, decision making, and to some extent motivation and emotion. Cognitive psychology covers a broad range of research domains, examining questions about the workings of memory, attention, perception, knowledge representation, reasoning, creativity and problem solving. Other theories in social psychology *Social Cognition - is mainly concerned with how people process social information, especially its encoding, storage, retrieval, and application to social situations. Social cognition’s focus on information processing has many affinities with its sister discipline, cognitive psychology. * Discursive psychology - also described as the second cognitive revolution. Its main idea states that there is no "cognitive level" as such, and that discursive phenomena like cognition should be studied only by observable methods like careful analysis of everyday use of language. * Social exchange theory - emphasizes the idea that, in relatively free societies, social action is the result of personal choice between optimal benefits and costs. See also rational choice theory. * Social learning theory - in contrast to reinforcement theory, social learning theory attempts to explain all of human behavior by observation and mimicry. * Psychosocial theory - explores and emphasizes the role of unconscious mental events on human social thought and behavior. Its psychological foundation is psychodynamic theory. * Social representation theory - an attempt to understand how people represent ideas of the world and themselves in similar ways. Well-known cases, studies, and related works Famous experiments in social psychology include: * the Milgram experiment, which studied how far people would go to avoid dissenting against authority even when the suffering of others was at stake. (At the time a poll of psychiatrists showed a belief that only 1% of the populace would be capable of continuing to cause pain to an extreme point.) Coming soon after World War II, it suggested that people are more susceptible to control by authority than was then assumed in the Western democratic world. * the Asch conformity experiments from the late 1950s, a series of studies that starkly demonstrated the power of conformity in groups on the perceptions/cognitions and behaviors of individuals. * the Stanford prison experiment, by Zimbardo, where a role-playing exercise between students went out of control. * Muzafer Sherif's boy camp experiment. Conducted twice in Robbers Cave. Researchers divided boys in to two competing groups and tried to combine them again later on through mutual challenges. Also known as the realistic conflict theory, because the intergroup conflict was induced through scarce resources. * The Authoritarian Personality by Theodor Adorno - looked at the attitudes, values, and mental habits of what he called the "authoritarian" personality * The Open and Closed Mind by Milton Rokeach - a follow up on the authoritarian personality that clarified cognitive differences * The Kitty Genovese case - looks at aggregate group behavior in a time of crisis — the bystander effect, showing the phenomenon of diffusion of responsibility. * Amal and Kamal - Indian children who had no human contact. * Bobo doll experiment by Albert Bandura * Facial expression studies of Paul Ekman * Emotions of Ifaluk of Micronesia by Cathrine Lutz. Cathrine Lutz made a fundamental field research revealing many problems of traditional emotion research. * Presentations of self in everyday life, the so called Dramaturgy or theater analogy developed by Erving Goffman, which looks at the meanings behind how people present themselves * The article Social Psychology as History by Kenneth Gergen. This article was one of the major works on the incident known as the 'crisis of social psychology' in the '70s. See also *Social psychology theory *Links listed under category of social psychology *Areas of study in social psychology References & Bibliography *Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social behavior. NJ: Prentice-Hall. *Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckman (Eds.), Action-control: From cognition to behavior (pp. 11-39). Heidelberg: Springer. * Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. p. 3. * Brehm, S.S., Kassin, S.M. & Fein, S. (2002). Social Psychology. Houghton Mifflin: Boston. * Cote, James E. and Levine, Charles G. (2002). Identity formation, Agency, and Culture, Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. * Freud, Sigmund (1920). Group Psychology and Ego Analysis * Heise, D. R. 1979. Understanding Events: Affect and the Construction of Social Action. New York: Cambridge University Press. * House, J.S. (1977). The three faces of social psychology. Sociometry, 40, 161-177. * James, William (1890). The Principles of Psychology part II, 469-471. * Kearl, M. and Chad Gordon. (1992). Social Psychology. Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon. * Mead, G.H. (1934). Mind, Self, and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. * Latane, B. (1981). The psychology of social impact. American Psychologist, 36, 343-356. * Michener, H. Andrew et al. (2004). Social Psychology. Wadsworth: Toronto. * Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 123-205). New York: Academic Press. * Roth, P.A. (1987). Meaning and method in the social sciences: A case for methodological pluralism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. * Smith, E.R. & Mackie, D.M. (2000). Social Psychology. Taylor & Francis: Philadelphia. *David Myers (2005) Social Psychology, 8th edition McGrawHill: New York, NY ISBN 0072977515 * Harry Reis & Brian Patrick, (1996). "Attachment and Intimacy: Component Processes." In Higgins, E. T. (Ed); Kruglanski, A.W. (Eds). Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles. (pp. 523_563) * Rusbult, C. E., Arriaga, X. B., & Agnew, C. R. (2001). Interdependence in close relationships. In G. J. O. Fletcher & M. S. Clark (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Interpersonal processes (pp. 359-387). Oxford: Blackwell. * Stryker, S., & Burke, P. J. (2000). The past, present, and future of an identity theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 63, 284-297. Further reading #http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_Psychology See also * Behavioural genetics * Behavioral economics * Community psychology * Computational sociology * Human behavioral ecology * Human ecology * Industrial psychology * Legal psychology * Moral development * Personality psychology * Political psychology * Symbolic interactionism * Sociobiology * List of social psychologists * Important publications in social psychology External links * Social Psychology Network * Society for Personality and Social Psychology * Society of Experimental Social Psychology * Journal of Personality and Social Psychology * Current Research in Social Psychology * Social Psychology - brief introduction * Social Psychology basics * Social Psychology forum * Scapegoating Processes in Groups * Portalpsicologia.org * Introduction to Social Psychology * Thomas-Theorem - in German * W.I.Thomas * In-Mind Magazine - Social Psychology for the Public * Social Knowledge for Android: Easy and fun way to learn research findings * Social Knowledge for iPhone. * A Definition and History of Social Psychology S Category:Social psychology S Category:Social psychology